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Double dissociation between rules and memory in music
Language and music share a number of characteristics. Crucially, both domains depend on both rules and memorized representations. Double dissociations between the neurocognition of rule-governed and memory-based knowledge have been found in language but not music. Here, the neural bases of both of these aspects of music were examined with an event-related potential (ERP) study of note violations in melodies. Rule-only violations consisted of out-of-key deviant notes that violated tonal harmony rules in novel (unfamiliar) melodies. Memory-only violations consisted of in-key deviant notes in familiar well-known melodies; these notes followed musical rules but deviated from the actual melodies. Finally, out-of-key notes in familiar well-known melodies constituted violations of both rules and memory. All three conditions were presented, within-subjects, to healthy young adults, half musicians and half non-musicians. The results revealed a double dissociation, independent of musical training, between rules and memory: both rule violation conditions, but not the memory-only violations, elicited an early, somewhat right-lateralized anterior-central negativity (ERAN), consistent with previous studies of rule violations in music, and analogous to the early left-lateralized anterior negativities elicited by rule violations in language. In contrast, both memory violation conditions, but not the rule-only violation, elicited a posterior negativity that might be characterized as an N400, an ERP component that depends, at least in part, on the processing of representations stored in long-term memory, both in language and in other domains. The results suggest that the neurocognitive rule/memory dissociation extends from language to music, further strengthening the similarities between the two domains.
Neuroimage. 2007 Nov 1;38(2):331-45. Miranda RA, Ullman MT. Brain and Language Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University, New Research Building, 3970 Reservoir Road, NW, Washington, DC 20057, USA; Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, Georgetown University, USA.
Good stress puts wind in our sails. It makes things happen. However, when we fail to balance our lives, excessive negative stress can make our existence a living hell. When we lack confidence that we can handle a situation our brain and body go into a defensive, fight-flight reaction. The major organs of our body cease to function adequately and our immune system becomes suppressed. When stress never lets up, this chronic condition can make do more than ruin our happiness and relationships. It can also destroy our health.
You probably know people who thrive on challenge and seem to...
At its most basic level, human sexuality involved in instinctual drive to sustain our race. Therefore, for the most part we are sexually attracted to those people with whom we can mate and produce the healthiest offspring. Furthermore, a person is more sexually attractive if we instinctually believe that they are capable of fulfilling their role as either a nurturer for or provider. Even though this may seem to be reducing human sexuality to the animal level, in all actuality that is exactly what it means.
A person who perceives in need to improve their sexuality most likely does not...
Too often I encounter people – many of whom are degreed and licensed professionals – who have a phobia about money. Perhaps they grew up thinking that everyone who was well off achieved their wealth through dishonest means. Regardless, I frequently hear them apologizing when they do make an unusual amount of money or constantly saying that making money is not their goal.
Although abundance comes in several mediums such as friends and wonderful experiences, here I am going to concentrate on money as being a representation of abundance and wealth. This rather narrow definition...
